Gates wrote his first software program at the age of 13. In high school he helped form a group of programmers who computerized their school’s payroll system and founded Traf-O-Data, a company that sold traffic-counting systems to local governments. In 1975 Gates, then a sophomore at Harvard University, joined his hometown friend Paul G. Allen to develop software for the first microcomputers. They began by adapting BASIC, a popular programming language used on large computers, for use on microcomputers. With the success of this project, Gates left Harvard during his junior year and, with Allen, formed Microsoft. Gates’s sway over the infant microcomputer industry greatly increased when Microsoft licensed an operating system called MS-DOS to International Business Machines Corporation—then the world’s biggest computer supplier and industry pacesetter—for use on its first microcomputer, the IBM PC (personal computer). After the machine’s release in 1981, IBM quickly set the technical standard for the PC industry, and MS-DOS likewise pushed out competing operating systems. While Microsoft’s independence strained relations with IBM, Gates deftly manipulated the larger company so that it became permanently dependent on him for crucial software. Makers of IBM-compatible PCs, or clones, also turned to Microsoft for their basic software. By the start of the 1990s he had become the PC industry’s ultimate kingmaker.

Largely on the strength of Microsoft’s success, Gates amassed a huge paper fortune as the company’s largest individual shareholder. He became a paper billionaire in 1986, and within a decade his net worth had reached into the tens of billions of dollars—making him by some estimates the world’s richest private individual. With few interests beyond software and the potential of information technology, Gates at first preferred to stay out of the public eye, handling civic and philanthropic affairs indirectly through one of his foundations. Nevertheless, as Microsoft’s power and reputation grew, and especially as it attracted the attention of the U.S. Justice Department’s antitrust division, Gates, with some reluctance, became a more public figure. Rivals (particularly in competing companies in Silicon Valley) portrayed him as driven, duplicitous, and determined to profit from virtually every electronic transaction in the world. His supporters, on the other hand, celebrated his uncanny business acumen, his flexibility, and his boundless appetite for finding new ways to make computers and electronics more useful through software.

All of these qualities were evident in Gates’s nimble response to the sudden public interest in the Internet. Beginning in 1995 and 1996, Gates feverishly refocused Microsoft on the development of consumer and enterprise software solutions for the Internet, developed the Windows CE operating system platform for networking noncomputer devices such as home televisions and personal digital assistants, created the Microsoft Network to compete with America Online and other Internet providers, and, through Gates’s company Corbis, acquired the huge Bettmann photo archives and other collections for use in electronic distribution.

In addition to his work at Microsoft, Gates was also known for his charitable work. With his then wife, Melinda, he launched the William H. Gates Foundation (renamed the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in 1999) in 1994 to fund global health programs as well as projects in the Pacific Northwest. During the latter part of the 1990s, the couple also funded North American libraries through the Gates Library Foundation (renamed Gates Learning Foundation in 1999) and raised money for minority study grants through the Gates Millennium Scholars program. In June 2006 Warren Buffett announced an ongoing gift to the foundation, which would allow its assets to total roughly $60 billion in the next 20 years. At the beginning of the 21st century, the foundation continued to focus on global health and global development, as well as community and education causes in the United States. After a short transition period, Gates relinquished day-to-day oversight of Microsoft in June 2008—although he remained chairman of the board—in order to devote more time to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. In February 2014 he stepped down as chairman but continued to serve as a board member until 2020. During this time he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom (2016). The documentary series Inside Bill’s Brain: Decoding Bill Gates appeared in 2019. Two years later Gates and his wife divorced.

It remains to be seen whether Gates’s extraordinary success will guarantee him a lasting place in the pantheon of great Americans. At the very least, historians seem likely to view him as a business figure as important to computers as John D. Rockefeller was to oil. Gates himself displayed an acute awareness of the perils of prosperity in his 1995 best seller, The Road Ahead, where he observed, “Success is a lousy teacher. It seduces smart people into thinking they can’t lose.”

Allen was raised in Seattle, where his father was employed as associate director of the University of Washington Libraries. He attended Lakeside School—an exclusive suburban private preparatory school—where he became friends with fellow student Bill Gates, with whom he shared a common interest in computers, and together they began honing their computer-programming skills.

Allen continued his education at Washington State University. However, he dropped out in 1974, after two years, opting to serve as a computer programmer for the American advanced-technology company Honeywell Inc. (later Honeywell International Inc.) near Boston, where Gates was attending Harvard University. Allen and Gates reunited and together developed software for the first microcomputers by adapting BASIC, a popular programming language used on large computers, for use on microcomputers.

In 1975 Allen and Gates secured a contract with the American electronics company Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) to adapt BASIC for use on the Altair computer. Allen thereafter moved to MITS’s headquarters in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he served as vice president and software director. With the success of this project, Gates left Harvard during his junior year, and in 1975 he and Allen formed Micro-Soft, the company that would become Microsoft Corporation. In 1976 Allen left MITS to work full-time for Microsoft, where he was influential in securing in 1980 a nonexclusive license for the DOS operating system and in brokering the following year rights to provide the software—renamed MS-DOS—for International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) personal computers, placing Microsoft at the forefront of the decade’s “PC boom” and thereby leading to its success. Allen served as Microsoft’s chief technologist until he resigned from the company in 1983 (after being diagnosed with Hodgkin disease), although he remained on the board of directors.

In 1986 Allen cofounded, with his sister Jo Lynn (“Jody”) Allen Patton, the personal holding company Vulcan Inc. to oversee his investments. He became the owner of the professional basketball team the Portland Trail Blazers (from 1988) and a cofounder, with Patton, of the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation (1990)—a private foundation devoted to strengthening and developing communities in the Pacific Northwest through its support of various nonprofit organizations. Allen began serving as guitarist for the Seattle group Grown Men (founded 1996). In 1997 he started the independent film production company Vulcan Productions and became the owner of the Seattle Seahawks professional football team.

At the turn of the century, Allen resigned from Microsoft’s board of directors (2000) and subsequently sold much of his stake in the company. He cofounded, with Patton, the Experience Music Project (EMP; 2000), an interactive music museum, and founded the Allen Institute for Brain Science (2003), a brain research facility. (The EMP expanded its focus and was renamed the Museum of Pop Culture in 2016.) In 2004 he cofounded, with Patton, the Allen Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame and funded SpaceShipOne, which made history as the first privately funded civilian venture into space. Allen became a co-owner of the Major League Soccer team the Seattle Sounders (from 2007).

In 2010 Allen sued nearly a dozen technology companies—including AOL, Apple Inc., eBay, Facebook, Google Inc., Netflix, Inc., Yahoo! Inc., and the Google subsidiary YouTube—for allegedly violating patents he had financed more than a decade prior. However, the lawsuit was dismissed by a federal court in 2014, and his appeal was rejected by the U.S. Supreme Court the following year.

Allen’s later notable projects included the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence, which he founded in 2013. He was also involved in deep-sea exploration, and he led expeditions that discovered the wrecks of various World War II vessels, notably the USS Indianapolis (2017) and the USS Lexington (2018). In 2011 Allen published the memoir Idea Man, which traced the rise of Microsoft and described his often contentious relationship with Gates.